psychology (20點) 急!!

Perceived Control
Personal control is the perception that one has the ability, resources, or opportunities to get positive outcomes or avoid negative effects through one's own actions. The concept of control has been one of the most pervasive and enduring ideas in psychological research and theory. Numerous theories posit an important role in human behavior for control constructs such as 1.SELF-EFFICACY 2. PERSONAL CAISATION (deCharms, 1968) 3. EFFECTANCE MOTIVATION (White,R.W. 1959 ) 4. PERCEIVED CONTROL (Thompson, S. C. 1981).
Having a sense of control has consistently been found to have adaptive effects. Perceived control is associated with emotional well-being, reduced physiological impact of stressors, enhanced ability to cope with stress, improved performance, less pain, and a greater likelihood of making difficult behavior changes
Perceptions of control in vulnerable populations. Across a variety of environments, from the classroom to the workplace to the medical center, and in diverse populations including children to older adults, it is generally adaptive to have a sense of control.

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Perceived Control is an important predictor of health behaviors for several reasons. First, individuals may need to feel efficacious in order to decide to make behavior changes.

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If people do not feel they have the skills to change a particular behavior (e.g., stop smoking), they are unlikely to exert the effort.

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Second, research on animals and humans has found that feelings of helplessness generally decrease attempts to change one's situation even when effective action is available Thus low personal control can lead to apathy that depresses the likelihood of any attempts to make positive changes.

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Furthermore, one particular type of control, control over one's own actions, is likely to play an important role in effective lifestyle changes. For instance, a dieter presented with a tray of high-fat sweets needs to exert self-control in order to maintain his or her weight loss plan.

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Low levels of self-control are not compatible with successful health protective changes if the changes necessitate restricting oneself from temptation. Finally, the preference or desire for control may be an important determinant of whether or not people decide to make health-protective changes.

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Those high in desire for control may act to make changes themselves whereas those low in desire for control may want others to act for them or use a more fatalistic or passive approach.

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How Stress Reduction Techniques Work?

Stress reduction methods fall into three broad styles.
1.Environmental Methods
act outside of the person on the world around them. These methods attempt to provide the perception of control or to increase social support.

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2.Cognitive Methods modify one or more of the mental processes which lead to the emotional response.
3.Somatic or Body Methods reduce the arousal of the Sympathetic Nervous System and increase the arousal of the Parasympathetic Nervous System.